Hollinger Corp. 
P H8.5 



ILLITERACY 



an< 



AMERICANIZATION 




PREPARED BY 

AMY BRONSKY 

Supervisor of City Grades 



Issued by 

C. P. Cary 

State Superintendent 



Madison, Wis. 
1917 



D. of D. 
MAY 25 1918 



/ ?/ 7 



ILLITERACY AND AMERICANIZATION. 



If it were brought to our attention that there are people on all 
sides of us living in narrow dark houses from which sunlight is com- 
pletely excluded and if we saw clearly that these dwellers in the dark 
are limited in their usefulness and enjoyment of light, if as we grasped 
these facts we should learn that it is possible for us to tranform their 
cramped narrow houses into spacious ones and flood them with the 
sun's light, warmth and cheer there are few of us who would remain 
apathetic to this knowledge. There would be a quick and generous 
response to it and presently the dark houses would be replaced by 
bright, cheerful ones occupied by more capable, useful and hopeful 
people. Such a condition confronts us. There are in Wisconsin more 
than 57,000 people occupying dark houses, — they are the houses of 
their spirits into which the white light of hope with its promise of 
growth and progress does not enter. The windows through which it 
should enter are darkened by the blinds of ignorance for the dwellers 
in these houses are illiterates doomed to the bondage of illiteracy until 
their more fortuntee neighbors release them from it. Are we ready to 
undertake this work? Closely connected with it is another obligation 
that of Americanizing our alien population. 

A nation wide movement has been inaugurated recently for this 
purpose as well as to extend educational advantages to those who have 
been denied them and to those whose opportunities have been very 
limited. These groups include both foreign born and native Ameri- 
cans. They include the illiterate and the literate. It is on the one 
hand an effort to increase the efficiency of all classes and on the other 
an effort to Americanize our foreign born residents. 

This movement is fostered by the Federal Bureau of Immigration. 
It is true that in a number of communities the work had been under- 
taken prior to the Federal Government's interest but it is enually 
true that the activity of the latter has given it a great impetus. 

The history of this Federal activity briefly is that the naturalization 
courts were finding it necessary to reject or to continue the cases of 
nearly 35 per cent of those who came up for citizenhsip on account 
of general ignorance of the applicants or because of their lack of 
knowledge of our government. In addition to this large percentage 
found wanting the courts admitted, regardless of their lack of educa- 
tional qualifications, another large percentage because they were in- 



2 ILLITERACY AND AMERICANIZATION 

clined to believe that these applicants were deserving. 1 These facts 
impressed upon the Bureau of Naturalization as well as upon the 
courts the appallingly large number of people in need of educational 
opportunities and in need of training in citizenship. The Bureau reas- 
oned that since the Government provides that no court admit an alien 
to citizenship until it is satisfied that he is attached to the principles 
of the Constitution that it is the Government's duty to "see that pro- 
vision is made to instruct aliens in theso( principles in order that the 
spirit of the provision may become effective. 

This is but part of the work that the Bureau of Naturalization saw 
before it. It saw in addition to this that there are large numbers of 
resident aliens making no attempt to secure citizenship. The records 
for one city showed that of those attending night school only 80 per 
cent had taken steps to secure it." As these students probably repre- 
sented the most ambitious of the newcomers it is safe to assume that 
this percentage was not larger than that existing among the larger 
groups of aliens not attending night school. Various investigations con- 
firmed the fact that vast numbers of newcomers are indifferent to 
the privileges and duties of citizenship and that it is clearly the re- 
sponsibility of each community to instruct its aliens and awaken 
in them a desire for citizenship. "No nation is larger than its sense 
of citizenship," and the United States has in the past suffered a great 
social loss in that it has allowed large numbers of resident aliens to 
live here and has made no effort to interest them in becoming a part 
of the body politic. The cooperation that the Bureau of Naturalization 
is seeking to establish with the public schools in the matter of giv- 
ing educational advantages to petitioners for citizenship will of itself 
react upon those of longer residence here who are indifferent to the 
privileges and duties of citizenship. 

The Bureau attempts to establish this cooperation by furnishing 
public school authorities with monthly lists of applicants for citizen- 
ship in all communities where there is an alien population large 
enough to justify the establishment of schools for them. These lists 
include also the names of the wives of the petitioners and declarants 
for the Government now recognizes wives as prospective citizens and 
is desirous of instructing and Americanizing them as well as their 
husbands. The attempt to do this is one of the most far-reaching of 
the endeavors that has yet been made to establish American ideals 
among our foreign born population. 

Letters are sent by the Bureau of Naturalization to citizenship ap- 
plicants and their wives telling them of the advantages that would 
accrue from their attendance at school. It is expected that the local 
schools by various means will follow up these letters and bring to 



l From address of W. M. Ragsdale, Chief Naturalization Exanr'ner, Pitts- 
burgh. Fa. (in Proceedings of First Citizenship Convention, p. ■!"•>, IT. S. 
Bur. of Naturalization.) 

2 Work of the Public Schools with Bureau of Naturalization, p. 16, U. S. 
Bulletin, (Bureau Of Naturalization. 1917). 



ILLITERACY AND AMERICANIZATION 3 

the attention of the recipients the opportunities that the schools offer 
them. As a result of the cooperation between the Federal Govern- 
ment and local schools 650 cities throughout the country at large have 
already organized classes to teach citizenship "to adult foreigners and 
other cities are at present organizing them. 1 It is impossible to esti- 
mate the extent of the benefits that have resulted because of this work. 
From an interest in the needs of future citizens and nonEnglish speak- 
ing aliens this has developed an interest in another phase of the Amer- 
icanization problem, namely, that of extending education to illiterates 
and near-illiterates. 

In the past employers of labor have sometimes opposed efforts to 
educate the illiterate anticipating as one outcome that higher wages 
would be demanded. Today the most enlightened employers are fa- 
voring better schooling and are even making provision to have edu- 
cational opportunities offered to their employees, on the premises 
where they work. They are doing this not only because they recog- 
nize the importance of the resulting social gain but quite as much 
from a business point of view because it has been shown that a low 
wage laborer is not a cheap laborer and that there is a loss incurred 
by employing ignorant labor even when the work involves nothing 
but mechanical and repetitive operations. In addition to this there is 
a greater risk to life, limb and property- when ignorant labor is em- 
ployed. For these reasons the payment of a higher wage to less ig- 
norant labor is not a more costly policy. Witness the action of a 
large manufacturing plant which offers a wage increase of two cents 
an hour to its employees who learn to speak English. In the Ford 
Manufacturing plant alone after schools were established for the 
workers accidents decreased 54 per cent. Such facts as these have 
changed the attitude of the employer who considered illiterate labor 
cheap. So that in a number of cases manufacturers now perceive the 
industrial advantage to themselves and their employes and pay them 
for the time they attend extension classes. 

To illustrate how both employers and employes are benefited by 
raising the educational standards of the worker the following state- 
ment is quoted from Adult Illiteracy. 1 "In a workers class that was 
established for illiterate girls in a certain New York factory it was 
found that they gained from 20 to 70 per cent in working efficiency 
and the girls themselves not only attained new hopefulness, ambition 
and courage but increased their earnings from an average of 19.5 cents 
per hour to 22.2 cents per hour while the earnings of those who could 
not avail themselves of the class instruction remained practically un- 
changed." 

This shows what we may consider individual gain, — gain to indiv- 
idual employer and individual worker. We must consider more than 



1 From address of Raymond F. Crist Deputy Commissioner of S'aiursli- 
zation, In Proceedings of First Citizenship Convention, p. 7, U. 
Bureau of Naturalization, 1917. 

1 U. S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin 35. 1916. p. 58. 



4 ILLITERACY AND AMERICANIZATION 

this, however, and keep in mind the gain to society at large. This 
we see in establishments where high grade labor is employed and 
well paid. These contented, ambitious, law respecting laborers form 
a marked contrast to those who are found in industrial centers where 
a high percentage of illiteracy prevails. It is noteworthy that such 
centers "are especially subject to costly and prolonged labor difficul- 
ties; notable examples have been Lawrence, Mass., Patterson, N. J. and 
the Colorado mining districts."- When we recall these and similar 
disturbances we need no further argument to convince us of the wis- 
dom of doing away with illiteracy. 

The task is not as difficult as it at first glance may appear. The old 
theory that adults learn to read and write very slowly has been dis- 
placed for experience in teaching them has proven that this is not the 
case. Studies have been made of the length of time required by non- 
English speaking illiterates to learn to read and write and it has been 
found that "It is possible for any person of ordinary intelligence who 
has never learned to read or write in any language and who can speak 
no English to acquire a good working knowledge of six hundred Eng- 
lish words, ease in reading common prose, legible penmanship, and 
knowledge of simple arithmetic. The time required is sixty hours 
or one hour a day for twelve wesks, five days a week." 1 

Only sixty hours needed to transfer a non-English speaking illit- 
erate to the English speaking literate class and yet according to the 
last Federal Census Statistics (1910) Wisconsin has 57,7(il) Illiter- 
ates over ten years of age and 120, 660 non-English speaking resi- 
dents over ten years of age. 

Regardless of the fact that efforts have been put forth to reduce this 
number it is probable that in the interval that has elapsed since 1910 
it has been growing larger rather than smaller for the early years of 
the present decade brought many more immigrants to this country and 
Wisconsin received its full quota. 

The following table compiled from Federal reports shows the classi- 
fication according to occupation of incoming immigrants who stated 
Wisconsin as their intended future residence. 



Total No. stating 



.Vvo^r illa- 
tion 



v " : "- ; .S^Si Professional Skilled ^-.vllau- including 
then- intended iou^ u ,un^n *.n.i 

future residence ThTldm?) 



1911 14,613 

1912 14,016 

iiM:i 23, ooi 

I!. ]l 20,660 

]'.i]:, 3,830 
1913 



120 


2.0!.") 


12:; 


1,615 


i.").-; 


2,360 


1. ".7 


2.343 


re 


575 


Ml 


322 



Total 78,822 'J, 260 



7 . 8< >'. 1 




7.77.1 


. 527 


1 I.I'M 


0.474 


12, 021 


6,139 


1.711 


18 


L.228 


■> 


14,627 


24,242 



-' \. lull [lliterarj . p. 21 . 

1 Adult Illiteracy, pagre 11, CJ. S. Bureau of Education. 1916. No. 35. 



ILLITERACY AND AMERICANIZATION f. 

It is safe to assume that there were many illiterates among the 
24,242 new comers who professed no occupation, as well as among the 
44,627 miscellaneous workers. 

How does Wisconsin's illiteracy problem compare with that existing 
in other parts of the country? Its percentage of illiteracy (3.2) is 
lower than that of the country at large, (7.7) due not so much to the 
fact that means have been found to combat adult illiteracy but. raiher 
to the fact that some of the southern states show very high percent- 
ages because the standards of their compulsory education laws are low 
and low as they are they have not been adequately enforced. Condi- 
tions there being so different from ours it is not profitable to compare 
the situations but a comparison is here offered with states in which 
conditions more nearly resemble those in Wisconsin. 

illiteracy in the Population Ten Years of Age and Over, 
(U. S. Census, 1910) 

Illinois 3.7% 168,294 

Michigan 3.3% 74 ,800 

Ohio 3.2% 124,774 

Wisconsin 3.2% 57,769 

Minnesota 3.0% 49,336 

Iowa 1.7% 29,869 

Iowa, as it is seen, runs a low percentage, the lowest in the United 
States. It is not expecting the impossible to aim to do away entirely 
with illiteracy. In the Scandinavian countries it is said to be prac- 
tically nonexistent. So little exists that no statistics are secured on 
the subject. This statement is substantiated by the fact that the per- 
centage of illiteracy among Scandinavian immigrants to the United 
States is smaller than that of any other group of immigrants. 1 

It should be stated to, the credit of each of these states that it had 
reduced its illiteracy greatly in the 20 years preceding the last federal 
census. Wisconsin led this group in this respect as is shown in the fol- 
lowing table: 

Percentage Decrease of Illiteracy in 20 Years. 1S90-1910. 
(Adult Illiteracy, page 10.) 

Wisconsin 58% 

Iowa 53% 

Minnesota 50% 

Michigan 45% 

Ohio 38% 

Illinois ' 28 

Wisconsin may be justly proud of its record for it was excelled by 
only two other sections of the country, the District of Columbia, where 
the reduction was 62%, and Kansas, where it was 60%. Will Wis- 
consin's record for the period of 1910-1920 again place her in the fore- 
most ranks? 



1 Abstract of Report of Immigration Commissioner, 1910-11, vol. I, i>. 178. 



6 



ILLITERACY AND AMERICANIZATION 



This 58% reduction, admirable as it is, affected largely the group of 
people coming under school age and was brought, about by better com- 
pulsory attendance laws and a more strict enforcement of them. Un- 
doubtedly the state of Massachusetts, which shows a much smaller 
percentage of reduction (16%) for this same period, really corrected 
illiteracy of those beyond the compulsory school age more than did 
our state, for Massachusetts has had a law upon her statute books for 
nearly thirty years requiring illiterate minors over 14 years of age to 
attend some school if they lived for a year in a city or town maintain- 
ing an evening school. To meet this requirement Massachusetts now 
defines the standard of literacy to mean such ability to read and write 
as is required for completion of the fourth grade. i This is far above 
the ordinary interpretation of literacy which usually amounts to abil- 
ity to write one's own name and ordinary simple words. 

Since on the whole Wisconsin has done very little to reduce the 
illiteracy of adults and minors beyond school age this is the problem 
that now faces us. The first measure that must be undertaken is that 
of locating them. Examination of our state by counties shows that the 
57,769 illiterates ten years of age and over are distributed as follows: 

(U. S. Census, 1910.) 



Counties 



Adams 

Ashland 

Barron 
Bayfield 

Brown 

Buffalo 

Burnett 

Calumet 

Chippewa . . 

Clark 

Columbia . . 
Crawford . . . 

Dane 

Dodge 

Door 

Douglas 

Dunn 

Eau Claire . 
Florence . . . 
Fond du Lac 

Forest 

Grant 

Green 

Green Lake . 

Iowa 

Iron 

Jackson 

Jefferson . . . 

Juneau 

Kenosha 

Kewaunee 
La Orosse . . 
Lafayette .. 
Langlade ... 

Lincoln 

Manitowoc . 



Illiter- 
ate 



Percent- 
age 



149 


2.3 


905 


5.5 


550 


2.5 


352 


3.0 


2,867 


7.0 


312 


2.6 


225 


3.3 


108 


0.8 


1,247 


5.0 


940 


4.2 


315 


1.2 


306 


2.4 


1,093 


1.8 


913 


2.4 


706 


5.0 


1,084 


2.9 


686 


3.5 


681 


2.6 


141 


5.4 


704 


1.7 


195 


4.0 


569 


1.8 


304 


1.8 


619 


5.1 


209 


1.7 


289 


4.8 


542 


4.1 


233 


0.8 


590 


3.8 


1,147 


4.4 


1,237 


9.8 


1,156 


3.2 


386 


2.4 


331 


2.6 


253 


1.8 


913 


2.6 



Counties 



Marathon . 
Marinette . 
Marquette . 
Milwaukee . 

Monroe 

Oconto 

Oneida 

Outagamie 

Ozaukee 

Penin 

Pierce 

Polk 

Portage 

Price 

Racine 

Richland . . . 

Rock 

Rusk 

St. Croix . . . 

Sauk 

Sawyer 

Shawano ... 
Sheboygan . 

Taylor 

Trempealeau 

Vernon 

Vilas 

Walworth .. 
Washburn .. 
Washington 
Waukesha 

Waupaca ... 

Waushara .. 
Winnebago . 
Wood 



Total. 



Illiter- 
ate 



1,165 

1,598 

370 

12,255 

463 

1,435 
369 

1.091 
374 
109 
486 
477 

1,716 
243 

1,247 
441 
824 
203 
354 
645 
420 

1,292 

1.052 
302 
584 
468 
440 
285 
148 
256 
490 
657 
308 
1,222 

'034 



Percent- 
age 



57,769 



2.9 

6.3 

4.4 

3.5 

2.0 

7.7 

4.3 

2.9 

2.8 

1.9 

2.8 

3.C 

7.5 

2.4 

2.7 

3.0 

1.8 

2.5 

1.7 

2.4 

9.0 

5.5 

2.4 

3.1 

3.3 

2.2 

9.7 

1.2 

2.5 

1.3 

1.6 

2.6 

2.1 

2.4 

2.8 



1 Publir Facilities for Educating the Alien, 



p. 13. 



ILLITERACY AND AMERICANIZATION 



7 



The percentage of illiteracy in Wisconsin counties among those ten 
years of age and over arranged according to a descending scale is as 
follows: 



Counties 



'Percentage 



Count i<- 



Kewaunee i 9-8 

Vilas 9.7 

Sawyer 9.0 

Oconto 7.7 

Portage 7.5 

Brown 7.0 

Marinette , 6.3 

Ashland 5.5 

Shawano 5.5 

Florence 5.4 

Chip: w a 5.1 

Green Lake j 5.1 

Door 5.0 

Iron 4.8 

Kenosha i 4.4 

Marquette 4.4 

Oneida 4.3 

Clark ; 4.2 

Jackson ! 4.1 

Forest 4.0 

Juneau 3.8 

Dunn 3.5 

Milwaukee 3.5 

Burnett 3.3 

Trempealeau 3.3 

La Crosse 3.2 

Tavlcr 3.1 

Bavfichl 3.0 

Pclk 3.0 

Richland 3.0 

Dorglas 2.9 

Marathon ' 2.9 

Outagamie 2.9 

Ozau l *ee 2.9 

Pierce 2.8 

Wood 2.8 



Racine 

Kan Claire ... 
Langlade .... 
Manitowoc ... 
Waupaca 

Ha iron 

Husk 

Wl show u 

Crawford ... 

Dodge 

Lafayette ... 

Price 

Sunk 

Slrhoygan .. 
Winn hago .. . 

Adams 

Vernon 

Wa"shara ... 

Buffalo 

Monroe 

P^oin 

Dane 

Grant 

Green 

Lineoln 

Reck 

Fond du Lac. 

Tom a 

SC Croix .... 
Waukesha ... 
W shington .. 
Columbia .... 
Walworth ... 

('•d'imet 

Jefferson 



Percentage 



2.7 
2.6 
2.6 
2.6 
2.6 
2.5 
2.5 
2.5 
2.4 
2.4 
2.4 
2.4 
2.4 
2.4 
2.4 
2.3 
2.2 
2.1 
2.0 
2.0 
1.9 
1.8 
1.8 
1.8 
1.8 
1.8 
1.7 
1.7 
1.7 
1.6 
1.3 
1.2 
1.2 
0.8 
0.8 



It must be remembered that closely allied to this illiterate class is 
another that may be known as near-illiterates. A very limited ability 
to read and write has put them into the literate class, but for all prac- 
tical purposes they are as much in need of schooling as are the illiter- 
ates. 

In addition to these two groups is a third composed of those who are 
unable to speak English. Earlier reference to these has listed Wis- 
consin's number over ten years of age as 120,665. Many of these are 
literate for they come from countries where education is prized and 
they had therefore learned to read and write in their own language, 
but there are others of this number who are illiterate, 43,662 in all. 1 
These as well as the non-English speaking literates should acquire a 
reading and speaking knowledge of English. The fact that we are 
satisfied to allow 120,665 foreigners to settle among us without acquir- 
ing a knowledge of our language when Federal regulations demand 



1 Public Facilities for Educating the Alien, page 33. 



8 ILLITERACY AND AMERICANIZATION 

ability to read and speak English before citizenship may be conferred 
means that we are remiss in our duty of interesting our alien resi- 
dents in becoming citizens. When we consider that 88.5 of the foreign 
speaking immigrants arriving in this country are over 19 years of 
age and thus beyond the influence of the public 'day school we realize 
that it is imperative for us to establish schools in which they may 
be taught English and citizenship so that they may be properly amalga- 
mated. Thei last statistics showed that only 1.3% of the foreign born 
whites over 21 years of age attend school. 2 We are helped to a keener 
appreciation of the interest that a community should take in teaching 
English to its foreign speaking residents by reference to a situation 
which occurred in Detroit in the winter of 1914-15. Twenty-three 
thousand unemployed workmen applied to the Board of Commerce for 
work, — 15,000 could not speak English. Work could not be found for 
the non-English speaking people and they and their families were 
public charges during the winter. This led Detroit business men to 
conclude that the teaching of English and the assimilation of the im- 
migrant is a civic necessity rather than welfare work. Teachers 
especially should be interested in teaching English to foreign born 
families for there is a direct relation between their lack of knowledge 
of English and the progress of their children in school. The greatest 
number of cases of retardation occur among children coming from 
homes where no English is spoken. 

A summary then of the group for whom night school should be 
established gives non-English speaking foreigners, applicants for citi- 
zenship, illiterates, near-illiterates and those who are desirous of ex- 
tending their education. 

What has Wisconsin done in the way of establishing extension 
schools for those whose needs are not met by day schools? 

Its law provides for the establishment of continuation schools which 
must reach boys and girls between the ages of 14 and 17 who have left 
school to engage in occupations other than agriculture or domestic 
service. These schools may and do reach people beyond the 17 year 
age limit. 

Every community of over 5000 inhabitants must and every one of 
less than 5000 m(ni have an industrial education board a part of whose 
duties shall be the fostering, establishing and maintaining of contin- 
uation schools, holding day and evening sessions. Such schools must 
be established on petition of 25 persons qualified to attend them. 

Thirty-one Wisconsin cities have continuation schools and night 
sessions are conducted in connection. These cities in a number of 
cases make special efforts to enroll adults who are in need of school- 
ing. This endeavor is a feature which needs development and exten- 
sion. 

Our smaller communities and rural sections have recently been put- 
ting forth an effort in this matter and some good work has been ac- 



2 Public Facilities for Educating- the Alien, page 10. 



ILLITERACY AM) AMERICANIZATION <) 

complished. In our northern mining section schools for adults have 
been stated by public school authorities as well as by mining com- 
panies and church organizations. 

In another county a line of work has been initiated which grew 
quite naturally from the State Reading Circle movement. Teachers in 
several districts had combined to form a reading circle. Later they 
enrolled the children in their respective districts in such circles and 
then came the request from the people of one district that they be in- 
cluded in similar work. Under the direction of the county superin- 
tendent such a reading group was formed and the members met for 
reading and discussion. A list of books was compiled and it was de- 
cided that the county superintendent, upon satisfactory evidence that 
six of these had been read, would present the reader with a diploma 
recording this accomplishment. It is of interest to know that in this 
small section 104 diplomas were granted and 24 of these went to peo- 
ple who were above school age. In addition to this some bought 
books, others subscribed for magazines and much good resulted. Aside 
from the personal benefit resulting to individuals the superintendent 
reported an awakened interest in the school which manifested itself 
materially by such evidence as extending the study of music in the 
school and purchasing a piano. 

The work that has been done in our rural sections corresponds some- 
what to the splendid work that has been accomplished in the Moon- 
light Schools of the South. i As yet classes for adults in rural sec- 
tions of Wisconsin have been few rather than many. It remains only 
for our country residents and school people to realize the possibilities 
and the resulting activity will be proportionate to the needs. If Ken- 
tucky could so marvelously reduce its illiteracy, if one county in 
Georgia (Tatnallj could in a slxort time reduce its number of illiterates 
from 1835 to 50, if North Carolina could in one month of moonlight 
schools teach 10,000 illiterates to read and write, surely in Wisconsin 
we should attack our problem and transfer to the literate class every 
illiterate whom it is possible to teach. How shall we go about this? 

The first thing to be done is to show the need for such work and to 
create sentiment favoring the establishing of such classes. A local 
survey should be made to determine the number of people in need of 
this schooling. The social center work that has been so successfully 
conducted throughout the state has accustomed the public to the even- 
ing use of the school plant and awakened an interest in group discus- 
sion and study. In so far as it has done this it has prepared people for 
the introduction of night schools. 

The work of the continuation schools has also helped for it has pre- 
pared people to consider favorably the extension of schooling to the 
worker. It now remains for us to make the urgency of adult needs felt 



1 For detailed accounts of these schools see: "Illiteracy in ihe U. S. and 
an Experiment for its Elimination," U. S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin 
1913, Xo. 20. 



10 ILLITERACY AND AMERICANIZATION 

and to get the work established. One of the most effective ways of 
doing this is to bring convincingly before employers the economical 
gain and increased industrial efficiency that will follow. Communities 
must be convinced of the necessity for the work so that appropriations 
may be made and teachers secured. Until this is carried as part of 
the regular school program schools and private organizations should 
demonstrate its need by conducting it as volunteer work. It is fre- 
quently possible to secure people other than public school teachers who 
are sufficiently public spirited to give their services as teachers if the 
matter is brought to their attention. In communities where the reg- 
ular work of teachers is very heavy there is a decided advantage in 
utilizing community workers for the volunteer service. Frail class- 
room teachers as well as those whose work is very arduous should be 
discouraged from undertaking night school work. 

Through what agencies may day and night schools for adults be es- 
tablished? 

Public Schools 
Manufacturing Plants 
Boards of Commerce 
Y. M. & Y. W. C. A. 

Women's Ciubs 
Church Organizations 
Fraternal Societies 
Associated 'Charities 

Publicity. 

Through whatever agency this work is undertaken the attendance 
will depend largely upon the advertising which it receives. By well 
planned advertising during the month preceding the opening of night 
schools the city of Detroit increased its attendance 153 per cent. It 
utilized every available source in its effort to interest people and to 
make known the opportunities and benefits to be derived from at- 
tendance. 

How to Advertise. 

Utilize the daily papers. Have notices in foreign languages as well 
as in English. If foreign language papers are circulated in the town 
have notices inserted in these. 

Send to the U. S. Bureau of Education for its posters designed to 
advertise these schools. These are printed in English and also in 
foreign languages. Display posters in conspicuous places that are 
frequented by the people whom it is desired to reach. 

Secure the cooperation of the clergy of foreign churches and have 
them explain the matter to their congregations. 

Secure the cooperation of committees of foreigners. 

Explain the object to the pupils in the regular school and encourage 
them to invite their parents and older brothers and sisters to attend. 

Send personal letters to the foreign-born parents of school children 
inviting them. 



ILLITERACY AND AMERICANIZATION 11 

Utilize moving picture theaters to show slides announcing evening 
schools. 

Send circular letters to employers, labor organizations, foreigners' 
clubs and societies, etc. 

Urge those attending these schools to bring their friends. 

Public schools upon the receipt of the names of applicants and de- 
clarants for citizenship from the Bureau of Naturalization should get 
into touch with these people and send them personal invitations to 
attend school. 

Night or Day Classes. 

Class time should be determined with the convenience and needs of 
the workers in mind. Night classes are necessary for they meet the 
needs of those who cannot attend during the day and they give an op- 
portunity to ambitious workers who have been denied educational op- 
portunities. It has been found, however, that they reach the studious- 
minded rather than the illiterate and the country or small town dwel- 
ler rather than the city worker. The reason appears to be that the 
latter is nervously exhausted after his day's work. Though his hours 
are shorter, conditions under which he works are not so good and 
he fails to get the most from the evening class. For this reason work- 
ers' daytime classes are recommended for cities. They have been es- 
tablished in many places and results have been very satisfactory. The 
industrial management allows the employe time for instruction dur- 
ing the day without loss of wage while the public school furnishes the 
teacher and equipment. 

Day classes should be established for foreign-born women. In the 
past one sad aspect of the Americanization of the growing children of 
the family has been that they too frequently came to feel superior to 
their parents. The movement that the government has initiated to 
Americanize wives of applicants for citizenship should receive coop- 
eration from schools and women's clubs and afternoon classes should 
be organized to teach English and homemaking. 

Summer Sessions. 

Summer sessions are advocated where the yearly number of incom- 
ing foreigners is large enough to warrant them. They are particu- 
larly desirable in such centers as the summer months are periods of 
great immigration and during the first few of sojourn here the new- 
comers are unusually susceptible to Americanizing influences. 

Number of Sessions Per Week. 

The number varies throughout the country from one to six. It has 
been found, however, that it is not advisable to have the same group 
of pupils more than three evenings a week and that it is best to alter- 
nate the evenings giving the preference to Monday, Wednesday and 
Friday. The most common time for night school is from 7:30 to 9:30; 



12 ILLITERACY AND AMERICANIZATION 

the next in general adoption is 7:00 to 9:00 and the next 7:30 to 9:00. 

Afternoon classes for women are offered two or three days a week 
from one and a half to two hours each to suit the convenience of the 
women. If the work is purely academic a two hour session is longer 
than necessary. When home making subjects are included the two 
hour session has been found best. 

It is suggested that one evening a month be set aside as a social 

- 

evening and that suitable entertainment be planned for this. Such 
meetings afford an excellent opportunity to secure from our foreign 
born the valuable contribution that the old world should make to their 
social life in this country. In the past. we have been indifferent to 
this but of late years we have come to see that the social life of our 
people would be maintained on a higher plane if we adopted the best 
of the old world social customs that the newcomers bring with them. 

Size of Classes. 

In villages and cities fifteen pupils in regular attendance is under 
ordinary conditions a minimum number for a class, while from 20 to 
25 pupils in regular attendance is recommended as the number which 
can most effectively be taught by the average teacher. In rural com- 
munities it is well worth while to undertake this work even though 
the regular attendance is considerably lower than fifteen. 

C >urse of Study. 

In preparing the course of study help may be secured from the 
course issued by the Bureau of Naturalization entitled "An Outline 
Course in Citizenship." This outline is not confined to civics but 
provides for all the common branches and includes also a homemakers' 
course. 

Further help may be secured from "Standards and Methods in the 
Education of Immigrants." Part I deals with legislation, Part II 
with instruction and Part III with organization and administration. 
This may be secured from the U. S. Bureau of Education. "Syllabus 
of a Tentative Course in Elementary Civics for Immigrants." U. S. 
Bureau of Education. 

"Course in Citizenship." Detroit Board of Commerce, Detroit, Mich- 
igan. 

"Outline of Lessons for Industrial, Commercial, Continuation and 
Evening Schools." Bulletins of Wisconsin State Board of Industrial 
Education. 

Textbooks. 

A list issued by the U. S. Bureau of Education is appended to this 
pamphlet. 

The Bureau of Naturalization has in preparation a textbook suited 
to the needs of prospective citizens. Undoubtedly this will be useful in 
other classes for adults. 



ILLITERACY AND AMERICANIZATION ];\ 

Use freely the daily paper. Have members bring the day's issue 
and read and discuss suitable articles. 

Simple biographies of famous Americans are most appropriate as are 
also suitable books in Civics and American History. 

In rural communities recourse should be had to the traveling library. 

Keeping Up Attendance. 

Where night schools have been conducted it has frequently been 
found that interest is easily lost and that attendance is irregular. It 
is probable that the falling away noted in the larger cities is due in 
large part to the fact before mentioned, namely, that of nervous ex- 
haustion after a day's confining work. If this is found to be the case 
night classes for these workers must give way to workers' day classes. 
The following is quoted from the bulletin on "The Work of Public 
Schools with the Bureau of Naturalization," page 10: "The greatest 
difficulty next to securing the enrollment of adult students was to se- 
cure regular and continued 'attendance until some material benefit 
should result beyond a more or less crude ability to write our tongue. 
The average attendance as compared with the enrollment was found 
to have been very low especially in the largest centers. The Bureau 
therefore advocated in its correspondence with the supporting organ- 
izations that prizes be offered for papers and debates upon different 
Americanization subjects by these students; that public recognition of 
citizenship be given with the presentation of certificates of graduation 
and naturalization and the award of the prizes. These were believed 
to be legitimate inducements to be offered by the public schools and 
the public generally to secure higher proficiency and larger attendance. 
It is gratifying that a very general support has been given these pro- 
jects." 

A number of cities report that they have secured more regular at- 
tendance by requiring a $2.00 deposit at the beginning of the session 
and making its return to the depositor at the close, dependent upon 
his percentage of attendance. 

There is another possible explanation of the falling away in attend- 
ance and that is that the schools do not yield satisfaction to these adult 
students. From the start it is important that they be made to feel 
I bat the work is worth while and that they are benefiting from it. 
This again emphasizes the importance of a course of study arranged 
to meet the needs of each group and likewise emphasizes the import- 
ance of securing interested and able teachers. 

Grouping. 

The grouping of students in extension classes is sometimes a per- 
plexing problem. The following suggestions are offered by the U. S. 
Bureau of Education in its Immigrant Education Letter, No. 3: 

Principals and teachers find difficulty in properly organizing classes 
of foreigners; i. e., in grouping the right nationalities, ages, abilities, 



14 ILLITERACY AND AMERICANIZATION 

etc., together. The following suggestions have been prepared to 
show the order of procedure and the most approved principles of 
classification. The Bureau recommends that school superintendents 
make additional copies of these suggestions and place in the hands 
of all principals and teachers interested in foreign pupils. 



I. GROUPING OF PUPILS: 

A. Individual record of pupils should be taken first, including 
name, address, occupation, occupation in old country, education 
here and abroad, home and marital relationships, etc. This ma- 
terial will give a personal contact and provide a basis for con- 
versation at once. 

B. Basis of Grouping;, where numbers are sufficient, should be as 
follows: 

1. Relative ability to speak English is the first test. 
Beginners' classes should be made up of pupils who speak no 

English or very little. 

Intermediate classes should be made up cf pupils who speak 
some English well, or considerable English rather badly, 
or who have had some school or private training in the 
language. 

Advanced classes should be made up of pupils who speak con- 
siderable English well, and who wish to acquire fluency 
and perfection. This class should give some attention to 
the literary elements of the English language. 

2. Nationality is the second basis for grouping. In the begin- 

ners' class pupils of the same nationality should be placed 
together where the number is adequate to make up a class. 
Where inadequate, nationalities of the same common ori- 
gin should be grouped together, for example, (a) Italian, 
French, and Spanish; (b) German, Dutch, Bavarian, etc. 
Pupils are lost and language difficulties increased through 
careless mixing of nationalities in beginners' classes. The 
problem is especially important at the present time because 
of the war. 

3. Previous education is the third test. Where numbers are 

sufficient, illiterates should be separated from the literate 
pupils. Illiterate aliens are more difficult to teach and 
create additional problems in teaching. If placed with 
trained pupils the latter are retarded. Highly educated 
pupils also should be separated from the poorly educated. 
Faster progress will be made through the separation of 
such types. 

4. Incidental tests are mentality, age, and sex. Mentally bright 

and alert pupils should not. be placed with dull and lazy 
ones. Old and young can well be separated, while if there 
is a large number of women in a school, they ought to be 
placed in a claes alone a.id given special instruction. 

<'. Regrouping should be practiced frequently during the term. 
The brighter students should be placed in a new class by combin- 
ing such students from a beginners' class with an intermediate 
class. The end of one month's instruction ought to show the 
teacher new Lines of grouping. 



ILLITERACY AND AMERICANIZATION 15 



HELPS 

As this work is comparatively new and as the Bureaus of Education 
and Naturalization have been investigating methods and results and 
publishing the findings some of the best help for those interested in 
establishing extension classes may be secured from these bureaus. 

The Bureau of Education has issued a series of immigrant education 
letters that take up special phases of the subject. Its bulletins include 
the following: 

Adult Illiteracy. Bulletin 1916 No. 35. 

Illiteracy in the United States and an Experiment for its Elimin- 
ation. Bulletin 1913, No. 2 0. 

Public Facilities for Educating the Alien. Bulletin. 1916, No. 18. 

The Bureau of Naturalization issues the following bulletins: 

The Work cf the Public Schools with the Bureau of Naturali- 
zation, 1917. 
An Outline Course in Citizenship, 1916. 
Syllabus of the Naturalization Law, 1916. 
Proceedings of the First Citizenship 'Convention, 1917. 

The National Americanization Committee at 20 West 34th St.. New 
York City, is prepared to supply circulars and pamphlets on the sub- 
ject. 

The Detroit Board of Commerce issues valuable pamphlets. 



16 ILLITERACY AND AMERICANIZATION 



SUMMARY. 

All school people are urged to assume as part of their war service 
this year the wiping out of illiteracy in Wisconsin, the Americaniza- 
tion of our aliens, and the extension of education to those whose op- 
portunities have been limited. All are urged to get the work started 
without delay. The great industrial and commercial development that 
must follow the present upheaval will call for the best trained people 
that can be supplied. If our country is to rank high in world progress 
and if we are to give the help in the countries where trained workers 
have been exhausted, it is essential that our people develop their abil- 
ities to the fullest degree. This means that we must give the best of 
educational opportunities not only to people of school age but that we 
must extend these opportunities to those who have passed beyond the 
reach of compulsory education laws. America has spelled opportunity 
to the people of the world. America must mean opportunity in its 
fullest sense to the immigrants when they reach our shores. We must 
no longer leave the Americanization process to the ingenuity of the 
alien nor must we leave the question of securing educational oppor- 
tunities entirely to the illiterate. We must take definite steps to meet 
these needs. 

City superintendents and principals are asked to assume in their 
cities the responsibility for awakening the public to the need for night 
schools and to secure appropriations for the work. County superin- 
tendents are asked to assume responsibility for the elimination of il- 
literacy from the villages and districts under their jurisdiction. They 
are urged to experiment on a small scale. Start at least two or three 
schools at once. Select the strongest teachers for this experimental 
work and give them all the help possible. Teachers are urged to co- 
operate, and where night work is not a part of the regular system, to 
give their services. Club women and all other public spirited and in- 
terested people are invited to cooperate in furthering the extension of 
special classes for adults. 

The state department will be glad to render any assistance possible 
to those wishina to establish this work. 



ILLITERACY AND AMERICANIZATION 17 



DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

Bureau of Education 
Washington 



Texts in English for Foreigners 

Andronis, Nicholas C. — The fundamentals of the English language 
for non-English-speaking people. 

Austin, R. — Lessons in English for Foreign Women. American 
Book "Company, 1913; 35c. 

Banks, J. E. — English for adult students of foreign birth. Second 
edition, 60c, 1914 — Ambridge, Pa. 

Berlin, I. — English Method. Wasserman's International Book Store, 
45 Clinton Street, New York City. 

Beshgeturian, A. — Foreigners' Guide to English. World Book Com- 
pany, Yonkers, N. Y., 1914; 60c. 

Beverly, C. — Oral English. Atkinson, Mentzer & Company, 1914, 
35c. 

Black, N. F. — English for Non-English. Regina Book Shop, 1913; 
$1.00. 

Bolenius, E. M. — Teaching of Oral English. Second Edition, $1.00, 
1916; Lippincott. 

Bolognese, S. — Economical Interpreter. "Caspar, 1908; 50c. 

Bridgeport, Conn. — Public library and reading room. Aids for for- 
eigners learning English. 1916. 

Chancellor, Wm. E. — Standard Short Course for Evening Schools. 
American Book Company, 1911. 

Chancellor, Wm. E. — Studies in English. American Book Com- 
pany, 1913. 

ChristofT, A. T. — Practical Reader and Guide Book for New Ameri- 
cans. Kansas City, Kans. Distributed by Maunder-Dougherty 
Company, 1915. 

Clark, H. F. — Foreigners' Manual of English. Harrison; 75c. 

Cole, R. E. — Everyday English for Every Coming American. Y. M. 
C. A., Cleveland, Ohio, 1914. 

Coveney, Mary E., and Field, S. — English for New Americans. Sil- 
ver, Burdett & Company, 1911. 

Faustine & Wagner — A New Reader for Evening Schools, Adapted 
for Foreigners. Hinds, 1909, 50c. 

Field, W. S., and Coveney, M. E. — English for New Americans. Sil- 
ver, Burdett & Company, 60c. 

Harrington, W. L., and Cunningham, C. J. — First Book for Non- 
English-Speaking People, — 2 books. Language lessons to ac- 
company first book. Heath Pub. Co., 19 04. 

Houghton, Frederick — First Lessons in English for Foreigners. 
American Book Company, 1911, 40c. 

Hulshof — Reading Made Easy for Foreigners. Hinds, 19 09. Three 
volumes, $1.20. 

Jimperieff, Mary — Progressive Lessons in English for Foreigners, 
First Year. Ginn & Company, 1915. 

Jonas, K. — American Interpreter. Caspar; $1.50. 



18 



ILLITERACY AND AMERICANIZA r 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



029 487 248 6 % 



Mintz, F. S. — First Reader for New American Citizens. Macmillan 

Company, ID 10; 50c. 
Mintz, F. S. — The New American Citizen. A Reader for Foreigners. 
Mintz, Frances A. — A Practical Speller for Evening Schools. 
O'Brien, S. R. — English for Foreigners. Houghton, 19 09; 50c. 
O'Reilly, M. — English Book for Foreigners. Flanagan; 15c. 
Price — The Direct Method of Teaching English to Foreigners. 

Beattys & Company, 1913; 45c. 
Prior & Ryan — How to Learn English. A Reader for Foreigners. 
Roberts, P. — English for "Coming Americans. — Teachers' Manual. 

Y. M. C. A., 19 09. Lesson leaves — conversation cards. 
Roberts, Peter — English for Coming Americans. Beginners' Reader. 

Three pages, 20c; 1916 — Ass'n Press. 
Sharpe — First Reader for Foreigners. American Book Co., 1911, 

40c. 
Shearer, James W. — A Pronouncing Speller for Foreigners. Jen- 
kins, 1915; 35c. 
Swingle, F. B. — English for Evening Schools, Racine Wis.; 35c. 
Tesson, L. — Reading and Conversation. 25c. — 1916, Palmer Co. 
Thorley, W. C. — English Reader for Foreign Students. Macmillan, 

1913, 65c. 
Thorley, Wilfred C. — Primer of English for Foreign Students. 1910. 
Vitali, A. — Easy Practical Course in English for Foreigners. Vitali, 

1911; $1.00. 
Wallach, J. — Book in English for Foreigners. Two books. Silver 

Burdett & Co., 1910; 50c. 
Wheeler, Charlotte — A New Speller for Foreigners. Alex. Dulfer 

Printing Company, 1913; 3 0c. 



Hollinger Corp. 
P H8.5 



. 



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029 487 248 



